Uskok War

The Uskok War, also known as War of Gradisca was fought between the Austrian (Croatian Habsburg soldiers - Uskoci) and Spanish on one side and the Venetians, Dutch and English on the other. Based out of Senj (Ital. Segna) bands of Uskoks fought a fairly successful guerrilla war against the Ottomans, and they formed small units and rowed swift boats.

Since the Uskoks were checked on land and were rarely paid their annual subsidy, they resorted to acts of piracy. Uskoks did not limit their attacks to Turkish vessels but also Venetian merchantmen were often attacked by the Uskoks (and later also attacked by Spanish corsairs). The Venetians tried to protect their shipping with escorts, watchtowers, and other protective measures, but the costs became too high: 120,000 Thalers annually in the 1590s, 200,000 in the 17th century, and 360,000 by 1615.^[1] In December 1615, Venetian troops laid siege to Gradisca, located on the Isonzo River.

Venetian-Habsburg tension increased and escalated into the Uskok War (1615–1618). The conflict was provocated by the activities of the Uskok pirates, stationed by the Habsburg rulers along their frontiers as part of their military border system. The pirates raided Venetian ships from harbours on the eastern Adriatic coast, within the domain of Ferdinand, Archuduke of Styria and future Holy Roman Emperior. Ferinand was unwilling to stop their attacks, but instead used the Uskoks to exert pressure on Venice in an attempt to hinder the Republic's ambitions in northeastern Italy. Ferdinand was aided by Spain, while Venice attracted Protestant assistance from, among others, the Dutch Republic. After the Uskok War, the bond between Venice and the United Provinces was finally formalized in an alliance. Ambassador Francois van Aerssen visited Venice in 1620 to ratify a treaty, signed the year before in The Hague, which entailed mutual assistance if one of the two republics were to enter into war with the Habsburg powers. Venetian relations with the Habsburgs grew less strained during the second half of the seventeenth century.^[2]

The Venetians launched a major diplomatic campaign for allies, since the Uskoks were vassals of then-Archduke Ferdinand of Inner Austria, who was likely to seek help from the Holy Roman Emperor Matthias (his uncle) and King Philip III of Spain (his brother-in-law). In September 1616, Count John Ernest of Nassau-Siegen agreed to raise 3,000 men in the Dutch Republic for Venetian service. They arrived the next May, followed six months later by another 2,000 with a contingent of English volunteers. Support from the Spanish was prevented on sea by a flotilla of 12 Dutch and 10 English warships, and on land by the a war in Mantua.^[3]

Beginning

First military events

The first military events started in January 1616 in Collio, where a garrison of Uskok and Segani was in favour of the Austrian faction. After the faction of Veneto gained an advantage in Mariano and after they placed the cavalry, they moved forward to Gradisca on 24 February 1616 and they encamped in Farra.

The Venetian Republic, being powerful at sea, was the absolute master of the Adriatic, while Austria had only a small part of the coast of Trieste and Croatia, which was blocked by the Republic of Venice. Any vessel could pass this border without paying taxes and without holding a Venetian residence. In January 1616 in Collio, which was guarded by a Uskok and Segnana in Vipulzano and San Martino of Quisco. The Venetian troops left a detachment in the field of Mariano, and arranged the chivalry in Romans and Medea, who camped near Farra and advancing on 24 February 1616 in Gradisca. The siege lasted twenty-nine days. The Venetian fleet crashes Trieste, whose garrison is reinforced by Captain Sebastian Zuech. The castle of San Servolo, the Karst Edge, has sacked two of infantry insignia Venetians in return are intercepted at the Rio Ospo from 240 German musketeers that causes them among a dozen killed and wounded. The administrator Benedict Lezze with 1,000 cavalry and infantry occupies the Venetian castle of San Servolo. Uscocchi and Croatian troops led by Wolfang Frangipane, Count of Tersato vicegeneral of Croatia comandant of a military expedition came to Monfalcone on 26 November 1615 and plunder its territory.^[4] The Venetian garrison that was restricted to shoot some guns from the fortress. On the Carso, Slovenia, and between Corgnale in today in today's Podgorje Piedimonte, gather 1,200 Croatian soldiers, 500 horsemen and 500 Uskoks, fronted by 3000 the Venetians led by Benedict Lezze administrator. The Duke of Savoy in Venice offers an alliance but the Senate refused. Carry out the raids and fires on the Karst of Trieste and Istria. The administrator of today Palmanova mobilize militias Savorgnan and Friuli and has 3,000 men with whom stood on the Isonzo and the raids began around the fortress of the Habsburg Gradisca.

In the first phase of the war action in Venice (troops left from Palma) was characterized by the use of offensive forces, their mobility and surprise. The Archduke, actively renounced to defend a number of cities (Cervignano, Aquileia, Castelporpetto, Maranutto, Mariano, Romans d'Isonzo, Cormons, Medea Sagrado), castles and villages - some of them surrendered to Venice to be attacked before - to stand stronger and more defensible positions. At this retreat, we must note, however, the offensive in Istria, where the Austrians broke easily going up to Pola, and Dvigrad Svetvinčenat. Since rejected the Uskoks plundered and destroyed the surrounding villages. The Venetian Loredan administrator then asked, and received, substantial reinforcements to defend the South from the incursions of Uskoks Istria. Porec and Rovinj sent the artillery, and weapons in Pula Valley and Dvigrad food and weapons. The militias were concentrated in Barban (Croatia), and Svetvinčenat.

First Siege of Gradisca

In 1616 the Venetians started to invest in Farra and Gradisca difensive works for the siege. The archducal disturbed by the chivalry from Gorizia and Lucinico. They are put in place three major culverins, four guns and three children culverins and other pieces on the side of Farra, damaging the walls and the buildings; and silenced the enemy artillery, except colubrina "Cerberus" from the castle. The assaults on the breaches were repulsed with heavy losses. The Venetians launched another futile assault in which only the courses differed. Giustiniani lifted the siege and retreated to Mariano. In September, Count John VII, John Ernest of Nassau-Siegen agreed to raise 3,000 men from the Dutch Republic for Venetian service. They arrived the next May, followed six months later by another 2,000 with a contingent of English volunteers. Support from the Spanish was prevented on sea by a flotilla of 12 Dutch and 10 English warships, and on land by the a war in Mantua. Ferdinand only had 4,000 soldiers to defend Gradisca, but received military, political and financial support from the Spanish as part of a larger deal: Philip agreed to give aid against the Venetians and support Ferdinand as the next Holy Roman Emperor in return for the cession of Alsace, Finale Ligure and Piombino. This led to a negotiated settlement between Ferdinand in the Venetians in which many Uskok's pirates were executed or exiled, and a permanent Austrian garrison was installed in Senj.^[5]

Battle of Lucenico

The Venetians spread the voice of the opening of negotiations and meanwhile clear up the troops. It consists of a body of 200 convicts to whom it is offered forgiveness are hired 4,000 French, are the contacts Friedrich Wittelsbach Elector Palatine and Prince of Wuttemberg. Pompeo Giustiniani is flanked by Francesco Ferrante and Martinengo de Rossi. Marcantonio of Manzano, the squadrons of cavalry Camillo Trevor and a group of Albanians resumed raids on the neck, killing 60 militants and citizens of the castle of St. Florian and the surrounding area. Trautmansdorf, received reinforcements, passes between the Isonzo and is strengthened Lucenico and Gradisca. The Venetian dawn attack on three columns Mariano, Corona, and San Lorenzo Mossa, led by Orazio Baglioni: Albanians left in the middle of the mercenaries Ferrante de Fulvio Rossi and Count of Porcia, the cavalry on the right of Francis Camillo Martinengo and Trevor, for a total of 4,000 men. The Albanians occupy the trenches on Lucenico but they stop to sack the dead while the other columns are welcomed by a large fire, suffering heavy losses and are forced to retreat. The Venetians, from disease, reduce military activities while the Austrians receive reinforcements.

War in the Alpine Range

The superintendent Barbarigo is replaced by Antonio Priuli, who gets Friulan and Dalmatian troops, strengthen fortifications pitched and diversionary raids accomplished in Istria, calling opposing forces. The Austrians responded with other raids in Monfalcone. In Monfalconese armies face each extending trenches. The troops ran choices and Albanians in the pay strong Venetian attack Stella, on the heights in front of leaf, so named for its hexagonal shape, but are repulsed with heavy losses. The war lies on the arc mountains. The Venetians plunder the territories of Kobarid and Tolmin, Schmit English mercenary captain with 400 men, hired by the bishop of Bamberg, with as many regular Austrian Pontebba deal with a coup, countered by the militia of Marcantonio of Manzano and resume Pontebba Malborghetto, joined by the cavalry led by Giacomo Antonini that plunders the near Tarvisio. The Venetians then fold up Pontebba and strengthen defenses. Camillo Tevigiano with numerous stradioti Cividale making a foray into the valley of the Isonzo Kobarid and Tolmin. The Austrians affected by the disease, losing one third of the militias and then retire on the left bank of the Isonzo. The Venetians occupied Lucinico, abandoned by their opponents. Even the last outposts have returned to the Austrian Isonzo infiltrating between the stations at night blinds. Pompeo Piazza Giustiniani 4 guns and 2 culverins strong against St. Peter's (Mount Fortin) and started the bombing Sibel prompting the captain to give the yield. The defense comes out with the honors of war.

Second Siege of Gradisca

The Venetians refrain from further offensive and intensify the blockade of Gradisca. The diseases reduce losses and their effects, the Dutch are halved. Austrian reinforcements arrived, led by Albrecht von Wallenstein. The Austrians advanced in three columns from Farra, Gradisca, and Gorizia and assault the camp of the Albanian militias of Camillo Treviglio, inflicting them heavy losses, including the commanders Marcantonio Manzano, Leonardo and Pietro Avogadro Gualdo. An Austrian column attack the Venetians that block Fort Stella killing Orazio Baglioni. The Austrians also take over the trenches on Monte San Michele. Lando is saved with difficulty. Giovanni de Medici left the command for health reasons, replaced by Prince Luigi d'Este. On the night the Venetians raise other forces and batteries around Fort Stella, but Albrecht von Wallenstein managed to bring reinforcements and supplies to fort Stella. ^[6] He used his wealth to win favour, offering and commanding 200 horses for Archduke Ferdinand of Styria for his war with Venice in 1617, thereby relieving the fortress of Gradisca from Venetian siege.^[7] Ferdinand only had 4,000 soldiers to defend Gradisca, but received military, political and financial support from Spain as part of a larger deal: Philip agreed to give aid against the Venetians and support Ferdinand as the next Holy Roman Emperor in return for the cession of Alsace, Finale Ligure and Piombino.^[8] This led to a negotiated settlement between Ferdinand and the Venetians in which many Uskok pirates were executed or exiled, and a permanent Austrian garrison was installed in Senj.

Aftermath

Archival study of Istrian circumstances at the time of this warfares documents and supports a thesis that in the clash between Austrians and Venetians" a squadron ( banderijska ), and not an ethnic, consciousness was dominant; this was not sort of progressive struggle against foreign rule but an unfortunate manipulation of our people by foreign camps, " which subordinated the local warriors " to the interests of foreign powers and pushed the Croatians ( and to a lesser extents slovenes and Italians ) into a brutal brother-killing-brother war ". Bertosa goes on to in the warfare of 1615-1287: 30-50 percent of Istria's inhabitants were killed or hauled off as captives, 90-99 percent of the livestock was destroyed, 60 - 90 percent of the houses were burned and destroyed, and 90 - 98 percent of the land was abandoned.^[9]

Peace

At the front there was fighting but both sides yearned for peace, Ferdinand, already in anticipation imperial wanted to break away from the commitment of the war with Venice to think about the problems in Germany, and Venice - although it has not really been fully engaged in the conflict because of fear of direct intervention by the Spanish - did not think the conflict would contribute to his cause merchant.

The truce was signed on November 6 and the armies began to demobilize on 28, but the prolonged of the peace talks and their outcome uncertain suggested in the Netherlands to the Republic of recruiting new contingent of soldiers would arrive in Venice, peace signed, where - literally - starved to death.

In the "Treaty of Peace concluded through the mediation of Philip III of Emperor Matthias de 'Romans and King of Bohemia and Archduke Ferdinand of Austria and the Republic of Venice" (now known as the Preliminary Treaty of Paris and the Treaty of Madrid) is resolved Uscoqui that pirates are driven by Mark and other maritime areas belonging to the House of Austria, and that, instead of the Venetians, they return to their Imperial and Royal Majesty all the places occupied by them and steps in Istria and Friuli. (When in Venice, he knew the conditions, signed by two resident ambassadors, the Elders Council of the Mainland by the Senate did approve the order for the arrest of the two, which were saved only through the intercession of the king of France).

The Venetians, however, emerged from the conflict head-on, getting what they wanted, namely the expulsion of Uscocchi by Mark and at the same time, the recognition of sovereignty over the Gulf, but the overall picture was bleak and the press indicate that during the first seventeenth century Friuli was in misery, famine, fever, livestock diseases and incursions of wolves.

References

1. ^ Parker, Geoffrey. The Thiry Years' War, 2nd edition. 1997. p. 36. ISBN 0415128838
2. ^ Trading places: the Netherlandish merchants in early modern Venice. brill. 2009. p. 32. ISBN 9004175431. http://books.google.com/books?id=M97Upupsi30C&pg=PA32&lpg=PA32&dq=uskok+war&source=bl&ots=0OoXTIltQs&sig=bH5t5n1_JKllIG07ABkpzjsJook&hl=en&ei=NTmtTeu2C8jEswa5pYDXDA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=9&ved=0CEwQ6AEwCA#v=onepage&q=uskok%20war&f=false. 
3. ^ Parker, ibid. p. 36
4. ^ Carlo Morelli di Schönfeld (1856). = Istoria della contea di Gorizia. Paternolli. p. 94. http://books.google.com/books?id=2Gs5AAAAcAAJ&dq=Guerra+di+Gradisca&source=gbs_navlinks_s =. 
5. ^ "About: Uskok War". http://dbpedia.org. http://dbpedia.org/page/Uskok_War. 
6. ^ Ripley, George & Charles Anderson Dana. (1858) The New American Cyclopaedia, D. Appleton and Company. pp. 185-189.
7. ^ Di Bert, Marino Vicende storiche gradiscane, Società Filologica Friulana, Udine, pp. 65-104.
8. ^ Parker, ibid. p. 37
9. ^ Van Antwerp Fine, John (2006). When ethnicity did not matter in the Balkans: a study of identity in pre-nationalist Croatia, Dalmatia, and Slavonia in the medieval and early-modern periods. University of Michigan Press. p. 219. http://books.google.it/books?id=wEF5oN5erE0C&pg=PA219&dq=uskok+war&hl=it&ei=FDmtTctJkMazBtj5jNgM&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CDcQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=uskok%20war&f=false.